Rare Earth Mining and Ore Processing
Rare earth mining starts with one of four main deposit types, and the type decides which elements a mine produces. Hard-rock carbonatite deposits such as Mountain Pass and Bayan Obo supply most light rare earths, while ionic clays in southern China and Myanmar supply most heavy rare earths such as dysprosium and terbium.
| Deposit type | Main elements | Examples | How it is mined |
|---|---|---|---|
| Carbonatite (bastnaesite) | Light rare earths, rich in neodymium and praseodymium | Mountain Pass (US); Bayan Obo (China) | Open-pit mining; flotation to a concentrate |
| Weathered carbonatite (monazite-rich) | Light rare earths with some heavies | Mt Weld (Australia) | Open-pit mining; concentration; contains thorium |
| Heavy mineral sands (monazite, xenotime) | Light rare earths (monazite); heavy rare earths (xenotime) | Australia, India, Brazil | By-product of zircon and titanium mineral sands mining |
| Ionic adsorption clays | Heavy rare earths, including dysprosium and terbium | Southern China, Myanmar, Laos | Leaching with salt solutions; often low-grade and environmentally damaging |
From Ore to Concentrate
Mined ore contains only a small percentage of rare earths, so it is crushed and upgraded into a concentrate before shipping to a separation plant. Bastnaesite is usually concentrated by flotation; monazite and xenotime from mineral sands are recovered with gravity, magnetic and electrostatic separation. Ionic clay deposits skip this step: rare earths are leached directly from the clay with salt solutions, which is cheap but can contaminate soil and water if poorly controlled.
What Makes a Good Rare Earth Deposit
- Element mix. A high share of neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium and terbium matters more than total rare earth content.
- Grade and size. Higher grades and larger deposits lower the cost per kilogram.
- Metallurgy. Some ores are hard to process, which raises costs or limits recovery.
- Radioactivity. Thorium and uranium levels affect waste handling and permitting.
- Access to separation. A mine needs a route to a separation plant, ideally outside China.
Mine production by country is on the production data page.
Rare Earth Mining FAQ
How are rare earths mined?
Rare earths are mined mostly from open pits in hard-rock deposits such as Mountain Pass and Mt Weld, then concentrated by flotation or other methods. Heavy rare earths come largely from ionic clays, where the rare earths are washed out with salt solutions instead of being dug out as rock.
What is the main ore of rare earths?
The main rare earth ores are bastnaesite and monazite, which supply most light rare earths. Heavy rare earths come mainly from ionic adsorption clays and from xenotime.
Why do some rare earth ores contain radioactive material?
Some rare earth ores, especially monazite, contain thorium and uranium, which are radioactive. Producers have to separate and store these elements safely, which adds cost and makes permitting harder.